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Are Protists More Closely Related To Animals Or Bacteria

Written By Saturday, May 14, 2022 Add Comment Edit

Eukaryotic organisms that are neither animals, plants nor fungi

Protist

Temporal range:

Paleoproterozoic[a] – Present

Pha.

Proterozoic

Archean

Had'north

Protist collage 2.jpg
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Groups included

Supergroups[1] and typical phyla

  • Archaeplastida (in role)
    • Rhodophyta (scarlet algae)
    • Glaucophyta
  • SAR
    • Stramenopiles (brown algae, diatoms, oomycetes, ...)
    • Alveolata
      • Apicomplexa
      • Ciliophora
      • Dinoflagellata
    • Rhizaria
      • Cercozoa
      • Foraminifera
      • Radiolaria
  • Excavata
    • Euglenozoa
    • Percolozoa
    • Metamonada
  • Amoebozoa
  • Hacrobia
  • Hemimastigophora
  • Apusozoa
  • Opisthokonta (in part)
    • Choanozoa

Many others;
classification varies

Cladistically included merely traditionally excluded taxa
  • Animalia
  • Fungi
  • Plantae

A protist () is whatsoever eukaryotic organism (that is, an organism whose cells contain a cell nucleus) that is not an animal, plant, or fungus. While it is likely that protists share a common ancestor (the terminal eukaryotic common ancestor),[2] the exclusion of other eukaryotes ways that protists do not form a natural group, or clade.[a] Therefore, some protists may be more than closely related to animals, plants, or fungi than they are to other protists; nonetheless, like the groups algae, invertebrates, and protozoans, the biological category protist is used for convenience. Others classify any unicellular eukaryotic microorganism equally a protist.[3] The study of protists is termed protistology.[4]

History [edit]

The classification of a third kingdom divide from animals and plants was kickoff proposed by John Hogg in 1860 as the kingdom Protoctista; in 1866 Ernst Haeckel also proposed a 3rd kingdom Protista as "the kingdom of archaic forms".[5] Originally these also included prokaryotes, but with time[ when? ] these were removed to a 4th kingdom Monera.[b]

In the popular 5-kingdom scheme proposed by Robert Whittaker in 1969, Protista was defined equally eukaryotic "organisms which are unicellular or unicellular-colonial and which form no tissues", and the fifth kingdom Fungi was established.[half dozen] [7] [c] In the five-kingdom organisation of Lynn Margulis, the term protist is reserved for microscopic organisms, while the more inclusive kingdom Protoctista (or protoctists) included certain large multicellular eukaryotes, such as kelp, red algae, and slime molds.[10] Some employ the term protist interchangeably with Margulis's protoctist, to cover both single-celled and multicellular eukaryotes, including those that form specialized tissues simply practice not fit into any of the other traditional kingdoms.[11]

Description [edit]

Besides their relatively simple levels of organization, protists practice non necessarily have much in common.[12] When used, the term "protists" is now considered to hateful a paraphyletic assemblage of similar-appearing but various taxa (biological groups); these taxa practise not have an exclusive common antecedent beyond beingness composed of eukaryotes, and accept different life cycles, trophic levels, modes of locomotion, and cellular structures.[thirteen] [xiv]

Examples of protists include:[15]

  • Amoebas (including nucleariids and Foraminifera);
  • choanaflagellates; ciliates;
  • Diatoms;
  • Dinoflagellates;
  • Giardia;
  • Plasmodium (which causes malaria);
  • Oomycetes (including Phytophthora, the cause of the Great Dearth of Ireland); and
  • slime molds.

These examples are unicellular, although oomycetes can bring together to class filaments, and slime molds can aggregate into a tissue-like mass.

In cladistic systems (classifications based on common ancestry), there are no equivalents to the taxa Protista or Protoctista, equally both terms refer to a paraphyletic group that spans the entire eukaryotic branch of the tree of life. In cladistic classification, the contents of Protista are more often than not distributed amongst diverse supergroups: examples include the

  • SAR supergroup (of stramenopiles or heterokonts, alveolates, and Rhizaria);
  • Archaeplastida (or Plantae sensu lato);
  • Excavata (which is more often than not unicellular flagellates); and
  • Opisthokonta (which commonly includes unicellular flagellates, merely also animals and fungi).

"Protista", "Protoctista", and "Protozoa" are therefore considered obsolete. However, the term "protist" continues to be used informally as a grab-all term for eukaryotic organisms that are non within other traditional kingdoms. For example, the word "protist pathogen" may exist used to denote whatsoever illness-causing organism that is not plant, animate being, fungal, prokaryotic, viral, or subviral.[16]

Subdivisions [edit]

The term Protista was first used past Ernst Haeckel in 1866. Protists were traditionally subdivided into several groups based on similarities to the "higher" kingdoms such as:[five]

Protozoa
Protozoans are unicellular "creature-like" (heterotrophic, and sometimes parasitic) organisms that are further sub-divided based on characteristics such equally motility, such as the (flagellated) Flagellata, the (ciliated) Ciliophora, the (phagocytic) amoeba, and the (spore-forming) Sporozoa.
Protophyta
Protophyta are "plant-like" (autotrophic) organisms that are composed mostly of unicellular algae. The dinoflagellates, diatoms and Euglena-similar flagellates are photosynthetic protists.
Mold
Molds mostly refer to fungi; only slime molds and h2o molds are "fungus-like" (saprophytic) protists, although some are pathogens. 2 separate types of slime molds be, the cellular and acellular forms.

Some protists, sometimes called ambiregnal protists, accept been considered to be both protozoa and algae or fungi (e.g., slime molds and flagellated algae), and names for these have been published under either or both of the ICN and the ICZN.[17] [18] Conflicts, such equally these – for example the dual-nomenclature of Euglenids and Dinobryons, which are mixotrophic – is an instance of why the kingdom Protista was adopted.

These traditional subdivisions, largely based on superficial commonalities, accept been replaced by classifications based on phylogenetics (evolutionary relatedness among organisms). Molecular analyses in modernistic taxonomy have been used to redistribute erstwhile members of this group into diverse and sometimes distantly related phyla. For case, the water molds are now considered to be closely related to photosynthetic organisms such as Brown algae and Diatoms, the slime molds are grouped mainly under Amoebozoa, and the Amoebozoa itself includes only a subset of the "Amoeba" group, and significant number of erstwhile "Amoeboid" genera are distributed among Rhizarians and other Phyla.

However, the older terms are all the same used every bit informal names to describe the morphology and ecology of various protists. For instance, the term protozoa is used to refer to heterotrophic species of protists that do not form filaments.

Classification [edit]

Historical classifications [edit]

Amid the pioneers in the report of the protists, which were almost ignored by Linnaeus except for some genera (e.g., Vorticella, Chaos, Volvox, Corallina, Conferva, Ulva, Chara, Fucus)[19] [20] were Leeuwenhoek, O. F. Müller, C. Thou. Ehrenberg and Félix Dujardin.[21] The first groups used to classify microscopic organism were the Animalcules and the Infusoria.[22] In 1818, the German naturalist Georg August Goldfuss introduced the discussion Protozoa to refer to organisms such as ciliates and corals.[23] [5] Later on the prison cell theory of Schwann and Schleiden (1838–39), this group was modified in 1848 by Carl von Siebold to include only animal-like unicellular organisms, such as foraminifera and amoebae.[24] The formal taxonomic category Protoctista was start proposed in the early 1860s by John Hogg, who argued that the protists should include what he saw as primitive unicellular forms of both plants and animals. He defined the Protoctista every bit a "fourth kingdom of nature", in addition to the then-traditional kingdoms of plants, animals and minerals.[25] [5] The kingdom of minerals was later removed from taxonomy in 1866 by Ernst Haeckel, leaving plants, animals, and the protists (Protista), divers equally a "kingdom of primitive forms".[26] [27]

In 1938, Herbert Copeland resurrected Hogg's characterization, arguing that Haeckel's term Protista included anucleated microbes such as leaner, which the term "Protoctista" (literally pregnant "outset established beings") did not. In dissimilarity, Copeland's term included nucleated eukaryotes such equally diatoms, greenish algae and fungi.[28] This classification was the ground for Whittaker's later definition of Fungi, Animalia, Plantae and Protista as the four kingdoms of life.[viii] The kingdom Protista was later modified to separate prokaryotes into the split up kingdom of Monera, leaving the protists as a group of eukaryotic microorganisms.[vi] These v kingdoms remained the accepted classification until the evolution of molecular phylogenetics in the belatedly 20th century, when it became apparent that neither protists nor monera were unmarried groups of related organisms (they were not monophyletic groups).[29]

Modernistic classifications [edit]

Phylogenetic and symbiogenetic tree of living organisms, showing the origins of eukaryotes

Systematists today do non treat Protista as a formal taxon, just the term "protist" is still commonly used for convenience in two means.[30] The most popular contemporary definition is a phylogenetic ane, that identifies a paraphyletic grouping:[31] a protist is any eukaryote that is not an beast, (land) plant, or (true) fungus; this definition[32] excludes many unicellular groups, like the Microsporidia (fungi), many Chytridiomycetes (fungi), and yeasts (fungi), and likewise a non-unicellular group included in Protista in the past, the Myxozoa (animal).[33] Some systematists[ who? ] guess paraphyletic taxa acceptable, and employ Protista in this sense as a formal taxon (equally found in some secondary textbooks, for pedagogical purpose).[ citation needed ]

The other definition describes protists primarily by functional or biological criteria: protists are essentially those eukaryotes that are never multicellular,[30] that either exist equally independent cells, or if they occur in colonies, do not show differentiation into tissues (merely vegetative jail cell differentiation may occur restricted to sexual reproduction, alternate vegetative morphology, and quiescent or resistant stages, such every bit cysts);[34] this definition excludes many brown, multicellular red and green algae, which may have tissues.

The taxonomy of protists is all the same changing. Newer classifications endeavor to present monophyletic groups based on morphological (peculiarly ultrastructural),[35] [36] [37] biochemical (chemotaxonomy)[38] [39] and Deoxyribonucleic acid sequence (molecular enquiry) data.[twoscore] [41] Withal, in that location are sometimes discordances between molecular and morphological investigations; these tin can be categorized as two types: (i) ane morphology, multiple lineages (east.g. morphological convergence, cryptic species) and (2) ane lineage, multiple morphologies (due east.g. phenotypic plasticity, multiple life-bicycle stages).[42]

Because the protists equally a whole are paraphyletic, new systems often separate or abandon the kingdom, instead treating the protist groups as carve up lines of eukaryotes. The recent scheme by Adl et al. (2005)[34] does not recognize formal ranks (phylum, class, etc.) and instead treats groups every bit clades of phylogenetically related organisms. This is intended to make the classification more stable in the long term and easier to update. Some of the main groups of protists, which may be treated every bit phyla, are listed in the taxobox, upper right.[43] Many are thought to be monophyletic, though at that place is all the same uncertainty. For instance, the Excavata are probably not monophyletic and the chromalveolates are probably only monophyletic if the haptophytes and cryptomonads are excluded.[44]

In 2015 a Higher Level Classification of all Living Organisms was arrived at by consensus with many authors including Condescending-Smith. This nomenclature proposes two superkingdoms and seven kingdoms. The superkingdoms are those of Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes. The Prokaryotes include 2 kingdoms of Bacteria and Archaea; the Eukaryotes include five kingdoms of Protozoa, Chromista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. The scheme retains fourteen taxonomic ranks. Eukaryotic unicellular organisms are referred to every bit protists.[45]

Metabolism [edit]

Diet tin can vary co-ordinate to the blazon of protist. Most eukaryotic algae are autotrophic, but the pigments were lost in some groups.[ vague ] Other protists are heterotrophic, and may present phagotrophy, osmotrophy, saprotrophy or parasitism. Some are mixotrophic. Some protists that practise non have / lost chloroplasts/mitochondria have entered into endosymbiontic relationship with other bacteria/algae to replace the missing functionality. For case, Paramecium bursaria and Paulinella have captured a green alga (Zoochlorella) and a cyanobacterium respectively that human activity equally replacements for chloroplast. Meanwhile, a protist, Mixotricha paradoxa that has lost its mitochondria uses endosymbiontic leaner equally mitochondria and ectosymbiontic hair-like bacteria (Treponema spirochetes) for locomotion.

Many protists are flagellate, for example, and filter feeding can have place where flagellates find prey. Other protists tin can engulf bacteria and other food particles, past extending their cell membrane around them to form a food vacuole and digesting them internally in a procedure termed phagocytosis.

Nutritional types in protist metabolism
Nutritional blazon Source of energy Source of carbon Examples
 Photoautotrophs  Sunlight  Organic compounds or carbon fixation  Most algae
 Chemoheterotrophs  Organic compounds  Organic compounds  Apicomplexa, Trypanosomes or Amoebae

For about important cellular structures and functions of animal and plants, information technology can be found a heritage among protists.[46]

Reproduction [edit]

Some protists reproduce sexually using gametes, while others reproduce asexually past binary fission.

Some species, for instance Plasmodium falciparum, have extremely complex life cycles that involve multiple forms of the organism, some of which reproduce sexually and others asexually.[47] However, it is unclear how frequently sexual reproduction causes genetic exchange between dissimilar strains of Plasmodium in nature and most populations of parasitic protists may exist clonal lines that rarely exchange genes with other members of their species.[48]

Eukaryotes emerged in evolution more than 1.5 billion years ago.[49] The primeval eukaryotes were probable protists. Although sexual reproduction is widespread amidst extant eukaryotes, it seemed unlikely until recently, that sex could be a primordial and fundamental feature of eukaryotes. A principal reason for this view was that sexual practice appeared to be lacking in certain pathogenic protists whose ancestors branched off early from the eukaryotic family unit tree. Withal, several of these protists are now known to be capable of, or to recently have had the capability for, meiosis and hence sexual reproduction. For instance, the mutual intestinal parasite Giardia lamblia was once considered to exist a descendant of a protist lineage that predated the emergence of meiosis and sex. Nevertheless, G. lamblia was recently establish to have a core gear up of genes that function in meiosis and that are widely present amidst sexual eukaryotes.[l] These results suggested that K. lamblia is capable of meiosis and thus sexual reproduction. Furthermore, direct bear witness for meiotic recombination, indicative of sexual practice, was as well found in G. lamblia.[51]

The pathogenic parasitic protists of the genus Leishmania have been shown to exist capable of a sexual wheel in the invertebrate vector, likened to the meiosis undertaken in the trypanosomes.[52]

Trichomonas vaginalis, a parasitic protist, is not known to undergo meiosis, but when Malik et al.[53] tested for 29 genes that function in meiosis, they found 27 to exist present, including 8 of 9 genes specific to meiosis in model eukaryotes. These findings suggest that T. vaginalis may be capable of meiosis. Since 21 of the 29 meiotic genes were also nowadays in Grand. lamblia, information technology appears that most of these meiotic genes were probable present in a mutual ancestor of T. vaginalis and K. lamblia. These ii species are descendants of protist lineages that are highly divergent amongst eukaryotes, leading Malik et al.[53] to advise that these meiotic genes were likely present in a common ancestor of all eukaryotes.

Based on a phylogenetic analysis, Dacks and Roger proposed that facultative sex was nowadays in the common ancestor of all eukaryotes.[54]

This view was farther supported by a report of amoebae by Lahr et al.[55] Amoeba take by and large been regarded as asexual protists. However, these authors draw evidence that almost amoeboid lineages are anciently sexual, and that the bulk of asexual groups probable arose recently and independently. Early researchers (due east.g., Calkins) have interpreted phenomena related to chromidia (chromatin granules complimentary in the cytoplasm) in amoeboid organisms equally sexual reproduction.[56]

Protists mostly reproduce asexually under favorable environmental weather condition, but tend to reproduce sexually nether stressful conditions, such as starvation or rut shock.[57] Oxidative stress, which is associated with the production of reactive oxygen species leading to Deoxyribonucleic acid damage, also appears to be an important factor in the consecration of sex activity in protists.[57]

Some commonly found protist pathogens such equally Toxoplasma gondii are capable of infecting and undergoing asexual reproduction in a wide diverseness of animals – which deed as secondary or intermediate host – only can undergo sexual reproduction only in the primary or definitive host (for example: felids such as domestic cats in this example).[58] [59] [60]

Ecology [edit]

Biomass by life form.jpg

Free-living protists occupy almost whatsoever environment that contains liquid water. Many protists, such equally algae, are photosynthetic and are vital primary producers in ecosystems, peculiarly in the bounding main equally part of the plankton. Protists make up a large portion of the biomass in both marine and terrestrial environments.[61]

Other protists include pathogenic species, such as the kinetoplastid Trypanosoma brucei, which causes sleeping sickness, and species of the apicomplexan Plasmodium, which cause malaria.

Parasitism: function as pathogens [edit]

Some protists are significant parasites of animals (e.g.; five species of the parasitic genus Plasmodium crusade malaria in humans and many others cause like diseases in other vertebrates), plants[62] [63] (the oomycete Phytophthora infestans causes late bane in potatoes)[64] or even of other protists.[65] [66] Protist pathogens share many metabolic pathways with their eukaryotic hosts. This makes therapeutic target development extremely hard – a drug that harms a protist parasite is also likely to damage its animal/institute host. A more than thorough understanding of protist biology may allow these diseases to be treated more efficiently. For example, the apicoplast (a nonphotosynthetic chloroplast but essential to carry out of import functions other than photosynthesis) present in apicomplexans provides an bonny target for treating diseases acquired by unsafe pathogens such equally plasmodium.

Contempo papers accept proposed the utilize of viruses to treat infections caused by protozoa.[67] [68]

Researchers from the Agricultural Inquiry Service are taking reward of protists as pathogens to control red imported fire ant (Solenopsis invicta) populations in Argentina. Spore-producing protists such as Kneallhazia solenopsae (recognized as a sister clade or the closest relative to the fungus kingdom now)[69] can reduce red fire emmet populations past 53–100%.[70] Researchers accept also been able to infect phorid fly parasitoids of the ant with the protist without harming the flies. This turns the flies into a vector that tin spread the pathogenic protist betwixt red burn ant colonies.[71]

Fossil tape [edit]

Many protists take neither hard parts nor resistant spores, and their fossils are extremely rare or unknown. Examples of such groups include the apicomplexans,[72] most ciliates,[73] some dark-green algae (the Klebsormidiales),[74] choanoflagellates,[75] oomycetes,[76] chocolate-brown algae,[77] yellow-green algae,[78] Excavata (e.g., euglenids).[79] Some of these accept been found preserved in amber (fossilized tree resin) or under unusual conditions (due east.g., Paleoleishmania, a kinetoplastid).

Others are relatively common in the fossil record,[lxxx] equally the diatoms,[81] golden algae,[82] haptophytes (coccoliths),[83] silicoflagellates, tintinnids (ciliates), dinoflagellates,[84] greenish algae,[85] red algae,[86] heliozoans, radiolarians,[87] foraminiferans,[88] ebriids and testate amoebae (euglyphids, arcellaceans).[89] Some are even used as paleoecological indicators to reconstruct ancient environments.

More than probable eukaryote fossils brainstorm to announced at about 1.8 billion years ago, the acritarchs, spherical fossils of probable algal protists.[90] Another possible representative of early fossil eukaryotes are the Gabonionta.

See likewise [edit]

  • Evolution of sexual reproduction
  • Marine protists
  • Protist locomotion
  • Protistology

Footnotes [edit]

  1. ^ a b The outset eukaryotes were "neither plants, animals, nor fungi", hence as defined, the category protist would include the final eukaryotic common ancestor.
  2. ^ Monera eventually became the two domains Bacteria and Archaea.[5]
  3. ^ In the original 4-kingdom model proposed in 1959, Protista included all unicellular microorganisms such as leaner. Herbert Copeland proposed separate kingdoms, Mychota for prokaryotes and Protoctista for eukaryotes (including fungi) that were neither plants nor animals. Copeland's stardom between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells was somewhen critical in Whittaker proposing a concluding five-kingdom organisation, even though he resisted information technology for over a decade.[8] [9]

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Bibliography [edit]

General [edit]

  • Haeckel, Due east. Das Protistenreich. Leipzig, 1878.
  • Hausmann, Grand., N. Hulsmann, R. Radek. Protistology. Schweizerbart'sche Verlagsbuchshandlung, Stuttgart, 2003.
  • Margulis, L., J.O. Corliss, M. Melkonian, D.J. Chapman. Handbook of Protoctista. Jones and Bartlett Publishers, Boston, 1990.
  • Margulis, L., Grand.V. Schwartz. Five Kingdoms: An Illustrated Guide to the Phyla of Life on Earth, 3rd ed. New York: W.H. Freeman, 1998.
  • Margulis, L., Fifty. Olendzenski, H.I. McKhann. Illustrated Glossary of the Protoctista, 1993.
  • Margulis, L., M.J. Chapman. Kingdoms and Domains: An Illustrated Guide to the Phyla of Life on Earth. Amsterdam: Academic Press/Elsevier, 2009.
  • Schaechter, Thou. Eukaryotic microbes. Amsterdam, Academic Press, 2012.

Physiology, ecology and paleontology [edit]

  • Foissner, Westward.; D.50. Hawksworth. Protist Diversity and Geographical Distribution. Dordrecht: Springer, 2009
  • Fontaneto, D. Biogeography of Microscopic Organisms. Is Everything Small Everywhere? Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2011.
  • Levandowsky, M. Physiological Adaptations of Protists. In: Cell physiology sourcebook : essentials of membrane biophysics. Amsterdam; Boston: Elsevier/AP, 2012.
  • Moore, R. C., and other editors. Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology. Protista, role B (vol. 1 [ permanent dead link ] , Charophyta, vol. 2, Chrysomonadida, Coccolithophorida, Charophyta, Diatomacea & Pyrrhophyta), office C (Sarcodina, Chiefly "Thecamoebians" and Foraminiferida) and part D [ permanent dead link ] (Chiefly Radiolaria and Tintinnina). Bedrock, Colorado: Geological Society of America; & Lawrence, Kansas: University of Kansas Printing.

External links [edit]

  • Tree of Life: Eukaryotes
  • A java applet for exploring the new higher level nomenclature of eukaryotes
  • Plankton Chronicles – Protists – Cells in the Sea – video
  • Holt, Jack R. and Carlos A. Iudica. (2013). Diverseness of Life. http://comenius.susqu.edu/biol/202/Taxa.htm. Last modified: 11/18/13.
  • Tsukii, Y. (1996). Protist Information Server (database of protist images). Laboratory of Biological science, Hosei Academy.[1]. Updated: March 22, 2016.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protist

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